Chapter 1
Part 1
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Title: Olympic Victor Monuments and Greek Athletic Art
Author: Walter Woodburn Hyde
Release date: April 8, 2020 [eBook #61792] Most recently updated: October 17, 2024
Language: English
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*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK OLYMPIC VICTOR MONUMENTS AND GREEK ATHLETIC ART ***
[Illustration: MARBLE HEAD FROM OLYMPIA. MUSEUM AT OLYMPIA.]
OLYMPIC VICTOR MONUMENTS
AND
GREEK ATHLETIC ART
BY
WALTER WOODBURN HYDE
[Illustration]
PUBLISHED BY THE CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON
WASHINGTON, 1921
CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON PUBLICATION NO. 268
PRESS OF GIBSON BROTHERS, INC. WASHINGTON, D. C.
PREFACE.
The purpose of the present work is to study what is known of one of the most important genres of Greek sculpture—the monuments erected at Olympia and elsewhere in the Greek world in honor of victorious athletes at the Olympic games. Since only meagre remnants of these monuments have survived, the work is in the main concerned with the attempt to reconstruct their various types and poses.
The source-material on which the attempt is based has been indicated fully in the text; it is of two kinds, literary and archæological. To the former belong the explanatory inscriptions on the bases of victor statues found at Olympia and elsewhere, many of which agree verbally with epigrams preserved in the _Greek Anthologies_; the incidental statements of various kinds and value found in the classical writers and their scholiasts; and, above all, the detailed works of the two imperial writers, the elder Pliny and Pausanias. Pliny’s account of the Greek artists, which is inserted into his _Historia Naturalis_ as a digression (Books XXXIV-XXXVI)—being artificially joined to the history of mineralogy on the pretext of the materials used—is, despite its uncritical and often untrustworthy character, one of our chief mines of information about Greek sculptors and painters. The portions of Pausanias’ _Description of Greece_ which deal with Elis and the monuments of Olympia (Books V-VI), although they also evince little real understanding of art, are of far more direct importance to our subject, since they include a descriptive catalogue, doubtless based upon personal observation, of the greater part of the athlete monuments set up in the Altis at Olympia, the reconstruction of which is the chief purpose of the present work.
To the archæological sources, on the other hand, belong, first and foremost, the remnants of victor statues in stone and metal which have long been garnered in modern museums or have come to light during the excavation of the Altis. To this small number I hope I have added at least one marble fragment found at Olympia, the head of a statue by Lysippos, the last great sculptor of Greece (Frontispiece and Fig. 69). To this second kind of sources belong also the statue bases just mentioned, on many of which the extant footmarks enable us to determine the poses of the statues themselves which once stood upon them. Furthermore, an intimate knowledge of Greek athletic sculpture in all its periods and phases is, of course, essential in treating a problem of this nature. Here, as in the study of Greek sculpture in general, where the destruction of original masterpieces, apart from the few well-known but splendid exceptions, has been complete, we are almost entirely dependent upon second-hand evidence furnished by the numerous existing antique copies and adaptations of lost originals executed in marble and bronze by more or less skilled workmen for the Roman market.
Finally, not only are the innumerable statuettes and small bronzes surviving from antiquity of great value in any attempt to reconstruct the pose of a given athlete statue, but also the representations of various athlete figures on every sort of sculptured and painted work—vase-paintings, wall-paintings, reliefs, gems, coins, etc.
By using all such sources of information, it is possible to attain tolerable certainty in reconstructing the various types and poses of these lost monuments, and in identifying schools of athletic sculpture, masters, and even individual statues. But it must be stated at the outset that such identifications, from the very nature of the problem, are at best tentative in character. The attempt to see in Roman copies certain statues of athletes has often been made by archæologists. However probable such identifications may seem, we must not forget the simple fact that up to the present time not a single Roman copy has been conclusively _proved_ to be that of an Olympic victor statue. Only as our knowledge of Greek sculpture is gradually extended by discoveries of additional works of art, and by future researches, will it be possible to attain an ever greater degree of probability. The further identification of these important monuments, as that of masterpieces of Greek sculpture generally, will thus remain one of the chief problems for the future archæologist. In the present book, where the body of material drawn upon is so immense and the scientific writings involved are so voluminous, manifestly the author can lay no claim to an exhaustive treatment. With due consciousness of the defects and shortcomings of the work, he can claim only to have made a small selection of such works of art as will best illustrate the various types of monuments under discussion.
The plan of the book is easily seen by a glance at the table of contents. After a preliminary chapter on the origin and development of Greek athletic games in general and on the custom of conferring athletic prizes on victors, the more specific subject of the work is introduced in Chapter II by brief discussions of the more general characteristics common to Olympic victor statues—their size, nudity, and hair-fashion, their portrait or non-portrait features, and the standard of beauty reached by some of them at least, as shown by the æsthetic judgments of certain ancient writers and by the fragmentary originals which have survived. The enumeration of these characteristics is followed by a brief account of the various canons of proportion assumed to have been used and taught by different schools of sculptors. The chapter ends with a more extended account of the little-known but important subject of the assimilation of this class of monuments to athlete types of gods and heroes.
In Chapters III and IV, which are the most important in developing the problem of reconstruction, a division has been made into two great statuary groups: those in which the victor was represented at rest, where the particular contest was indicated, if indicated at all, by very general motives or by particular athletic attributes; and those in which the victor was represented in movement, _i. e._, in the characteristic pose of the contest in which he won his victory.
Chapter V relates chiefly to the monuments of hippodrome victors, those in the various chariot-races and horse-races, and ends with a very brief notice of non-athlete victor dedications—those of musicians.
Chapter VI gives a stylistic analysis of what are conceived to be two original marble heads from lost victor statues, one of which is ascribed to Lysippos, the great bronze-founder and art-reformer of the fourth century B. C., while the other is regarded as an early Hellenistic work of eclectic tendencies. The publication of these marble heads and of the oldest-dated victor statue, which is also of marble and which is discussed in Chapter VII, reinforced by other evidence adduced in the latter chapter, overthrows the belief that all victor statues were uniformly made of bronze. The publication of the Olympia head also controverts the usual assumption of archæologists that Lysippos worked only in metal. The last chapter is concerned with a topographical study of the original positions in the Altis of the various athlete monuments discussed, and with a list of all the victor monuments known to have been erected outside Olympia in various cities of the ancient world. These last three chapters are based on papers which have already appeared in the _American Journal of Archæology_ (Chapters VI, VII, and the first half of VIII) and in the _Transactions of the American Philological Association_ (the last half of Chapter VIII). Permission to use them in the present book has been kindly granted to the author by Dr. James A. Paton, former editor-in-chief of the _American Journal of Archæology_, and by Professor Clarence P. Bill, the secretary of the American Philological Association.
Although it has been my aim throughout to present my own views in regard to the various works of art under discussion, I must, of course, acknowledge that the book is largely based upon the work and conclusions of preceding scholars who have treated various phases of the same subject. It would, however, be unnecessary and even impossible here to acknowledge all the works laid directly or indirectly under contribution in the composition of the book. Most of these have been recorded in the footnotes.
But I wish here to express, in a more general way, my indebtedness to the standard histories of Greek sculpture, by Brunn, Collignon, Gardiner, Lechat, Murray, Overbeck, Richardson, and others, which must form the foundation of the knowledge of any one who writes on any phase of the subject. Among these, two have been found especially valuable: Bulle’s _Der schoene Mensch im Altertum_, which is justly noted for its comprehensive views and sound judgments; and Furtwaengler’s _Die Meisterwerke der griechischen Plastik_, which, although it has been known to English readers in its enlarged edition by Miss Eugénie Sellers for over a quarter of a century, is still prized for its extensive firsthand knowledge of the monuments and for its brilliant inductions, even if the latter at times are carried too far.
Perhaps my greatest debt has been to the excellent volume entitled _Greek Athletic Sports and Festivals_, by E. Norman Gardiner, M. A., a scholar whose practical knowledge of modern athletic sports and wide familiarity with the ancient source material, both literary and monumental, has well fitted him to deal afresh with the subject treated so learnedly over three quarters of a century ago in Krause’s _Die Gymnastik und Agonistik der Hellenen_. I have also constantly drawn upon Gardiner’s collection of vase-paintings which illustrate athletic scenes.
I should also note here several other works which have been of great assistance in writing this book, such as Juethner’s _Ueber antike Turngeraethe_ and edition of Philostratos’ _de Arte gymnastica_, Reisch’s _Griechische Weihgeschenke_, Rouse’s _Greek Votive Offerings_, and Foerster’s _Die Sieger in den Olympischen Spielen_. The chronological list of victors in the latter compilation was, in large part, the foundation of my earlier work _de olympionicarum Statuis_.
I have also received most valuable help from the standard catalogues of modern museums, _e. g._, those by Amelung, Dickins, Helbig, Kabbadias, Lechat, Richter, de Ridder, Staïs, Svoronos, and especially the admirable ones of the classical collections in the British Museum. I regret that, owing to the recent war, some of the latest catalogues, those especially of the smaller foreign museums, have not been available.
For illustrative matter, I have made no effort to reproduce merely striking works of art, but have, for the most part, presented well-known works which readily illustrate the problems treated in the text. I have availed myself of collections of photographs kindly placed at my disposal by Professors Herbert E. Everett of the School of Fine Arts of the University of Pennsylvania, D. M. Robinson of the Johns Hopkins University, A. S. Cooley of the Moravian College at Bethlehem, Pennsylvania, and Dr. Mary H. Swindler of Bryn Mawr College. The various collections of plates and the books and journals from which I have taken illustrations are duly noted in the List of Illustrations.
In addition, I wish to thank the following corporations and individuals for permission to reproduce plates and text-cuts from the works cited: the Council of the Society for the Promotion of Hellenic Studies, of London, for the use of four plates appearing in the _Journal of Hellenic Studies_ (Figs. 44, 54, 55, and 59); the Trustees of the British Museum in London for seven plates from _Marbles and Bronzes in the British Museum_ (Pls. 7A, 17, 19; Figs. 14, 28, 31, and 35); Professor E. A. Gardiner and his publishers, Duckworth and Co., of London, for two plates from _Six Greek Sculptors_ (Pl. 30; Fig. 71); Mr. H. R. Hall, of the British Museum, and his publisher, Philip Lee Warner, of London, for one from _Aegean Archæology_ (Fig. 1); Professor Allan Marquand, of Princeton University, for one text-cut from the _American Journal of Archæology_ (Fig. 49), and Dr. J. M. Paton, former editor-in-chief, for three other text-cuts from the same journal (Figs. 70, 72, 79).
To the following I am also indebted for individual photographs: Dr. J. N. Svoronos, Director of the Numismatic Museum, Athens, Greece, for one of the oldest-dated statues of an Olympic victor (Fig. 79), which has already appeared in the _American Journal of Archæology_; Dr. A. Fairbanks, of the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston, for those of the statue of a Charioteer (?) and of the fragmentary head of the _Oil-pourer_ (Pl. 27; Fig. 23); Dr. Edward Robinson, of the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, for those of the fine Kresilæan and Praxitelian heads (Pls. 15, 20), and of the bronze statuette of a diskobolos (Fig. 46); Prof. Alice Walton, of Wellesley College, for one of the Polykleitan athlete (Pl. 13); the Director of the Fogg Art Museum of Cambridge, Mass., for that of the so-called _Meleager_ (Fig. 77); Dr. S. B. Luce, recently of the Museum of the University of Pennsylvania, for photographs of two vase-paintings showing athletic scenes (Figs. 50, 56), and Dr. Eleanor F. Rambo, formerly of the same Museum, for a copy of the Knossos wall-painting (Pl. 1).
A word might be added as to the spelling of Greek proper names. Since consistency in this matter seems unattainable, I have adopted the method outlined in the _British School Annual_ (XV, 1908-09, p. 402), whereby the names of persons, places, buildings, festivals, etc., are transliterated from the Greek forms, except those which have become a part of the English language. But even here I have sometimes deviated from the practice of using familiar English forms.
In abbreviations of the names of journals (see pages XVI-XIX) I have largely conformed with the usage long recommended by the _American Journal of Archæology._
For convenience in identifying the many works of art, discussed or mentioned in the text and foot-notes, I have constantly referred to well-known collections of plates, such as those of Brunn-Bruckmann, Bulle, Rayet, and von Mach. For further convenience, I have also in most cases referred to the outline drawings of statues in Reinach’s _Répertoire de la statuaire grecque et romaine_, and in some cases to the older ones found in Clarac’s _Musée de sculpture antique et moderne_, and in Mueller and Wieseler’s _Denkmaeler der alten Kunst_.
In closing, I have the pleasant duty of thanking generally the many friends who have given me valuable suggestions and assistance, especially Professor Lane Cooper, of Cornell University, for reading the proof-sheets of the entire work, and Professor Alfred Emerson, now of Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, my former teacher, for revising the list of _Corrigenda_.
WALTER WOODBURN HYDE.
UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA. _Philadelphia, October, 1921._
CONTENTS.
CHAPTER I.
PAGE
EARLY GREEK GAMES AND PRIZES 1-42
Sports in Crete 1
Athletics in Homer 7
Origin of Greek Games in the Cult of the Dead 9
Early History of the Four National Games 14
Early Prizes for Athletes 18
Dedication of Athlete Prizes 21
Dedication of Statues at Olympia and Elsewhere 24
Honors Paid to Victors by their Native Cities 32
Votive Character of Victor Dedications 37
Miscellaneous Memorials to Victors 40
Honorary Statues 41
CHAPTER II.
GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF VICTOR STATUES AT OLYMPIA 43-98
Size of Victor Statues 45
Nudity of Victor Statues 47
The Athletic Hair-fashion 50
Iconic and Aniconic Statues 54
Portrait Statues 55
Aniconic Statues 58
Aesthetic Judgments of Classical Writers 58
Greek Originals of Victor Statues 62
Canons of Proportion 65
Assimilation of Olympic Victor Statues to Types of Gods and Heroes 71
Athlete Statues Assimilated to Types of Hermes 75
Athlete Statues Assimilated to Types of Apollo 88
Athlete Statues Assimilated to Types of Herakles 93
Athletes Represented as the Dioskouroi 96
CHAPTER III.
VICTOR STATUES REPRESENTED AT REST 99-172
The Apollo Type 100
The Affiliated Schools of Argos and Sikyon 109
The School of Argos 109
The School of Sikyon 118
Aeginetan Sculptors 122
Attic Sculptors 126
General Motives of Statues at Rest 130
Adoration and Prayer 130
Anointing 133
Oil-scraping 135
Libation-pouring 138
Resting after the Contest 144
Attributes of Victor Statues 147
Primary Attributes of Victor Statues 148
The Victor Fillet 148
Fillet-binders 150
The Crown of Wild Olive 155
The Palm-branch 160
Secondary Attributes of Victor Statues 161
Hoplitodromoi 161
Pentathletes 164
Boxers 165
Wrestlers 165
Caps for Boxers, Pancratiasts, and Wrestlers 165
The Swollen Ear 167
CHAPTER IV.
VICTOR STATUES REPRESENTED IN MOTION 173-256
The _Tyrannicides_ 173
Antiquity of Motion Statues in Greece 176
Pythagoras and Myron 178
Motion Statues representing Victors in Various Contests 188
Runners: Stadiodromoi, Diaulodromoi, Dolichodromoi 190
The Statue of the Runner Ladas 196
Statues of Boy Runners 200
Hoplitodromoi 203
Pentathletes 210
Jumpers 214
Diskoboloi 218
Akontistai 222
Wrestlers 228
Boxers 234
Pancratiasts 246
CHAPTER V.
MONUMENTS OF HIPPODROME AND MUSICAL VICTORS 257-285
Programme of Hippodrome Events 259
Representations of the Chariot-race 262
Chariot-groups at Olympia 264
Remains of Chariot-groups 269
The _Apobates_ Chariot-race 272
Statues of Charioteers 274
Dedications of Victors in the Horse-race at Olympia and Elsewhere 278
Monuments Illustrating the Horse-race 280
The _Apobates_ Horse-race 282
Dedications of Musical Victors at Olympia and Elsewhere 283
CHAPTER VI.
TWO MARBLE HEADS FROM VICTOR STATUES 286-320
The Group of Daochos at Delphi, and Lysippos 286
The _Apoxyomenos_ of the Vatican, and Lysippos 288
The _Agios_ and the _Apoxyomenos_ compared, and the Style of Lysippos 289
The Head from Olympia 293
The Olympia Head and that of the _Agias_ 294
Identification of the Olympia Head 298
The Dates of Philandridas and Lysippos 300
Lysippos as a Worker in Marble, and Statue “Doubles” 302
The Head of a Statue of a Boy from Sparta, and the Art of Skopas 303
Comparison of the Tegea Heads and the Head from Sparta 308
The Styles of Skopas and Lysippos Compared 311
The Sparta Head Compared with that of the _Philandridas_ 316
The Sparta Head an Eclectic Work and an Example of Assimilation 318
CHAPTER VII.
THE MATERIALS OF OLYMPIC VICTOR MONUMENTS, AND THE OLDEST-DATED VICTOR STATUE 321-338
The Case for Bronze 321
The Case for Stone 323
The Statue of Arrhachion at Phigalia 326
Egyptian Influence on Early Greek Sculpture 328
Early Victor Statues and the “Apollo” Type 334
CHAPTER VIII.
POSITIONS OF VICTOR STATUES IN THE ALTIS; OLYMPIC VICTOR MONUMENTS ERECTED OUTSIDE OLYMPIA; STATISTICS OF OLYMPIC VICTOR STATUARIES 339-375
Statues Mentioned by Pausanias 339
The First Ephodos of Pausanias 341
The Second Ephodos of Pausanias 348
Summary of Results 352
Statues not Mentioned by Pausanias, but known from Recovered Bases 353
Olympic Victor Monuments Erected Outside Olympia 361
Summary of Results 374
Statistics of Olympic Victor Statuaries 375
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.
PLATES. FACING PAGE
Marble Head, from Olympia. Front view. Museum of Olympia. After _Bildw. v. Ol._, Tafelbd., Pl. LIV, 3 _Frontispiece._
1. Bull-grappling Scene. Wall-painting, from Knossos. Museum of Candia. After Photograph from copy in watercolor by Gilliéron in the Museum of Liverpool 2
2. Marble Statue of a Girl Runner. Vatican Museum, Rome. After Photograph by Anderson 50
3. Bronze Head of an Olympic Victor. Glyptothek, Munich. After B. B., No. 8 62
4. Statue of the _Doryphoros_, from Pompeii, after Polykleitos. Museum of Naples. After Photograph by Alinari 70
5. Statue of _Hermes_, from Andros. National Museum, Athens. After Photograph by Rhomaïdes 72
6. Statue of the _Standing Diskobolos_, after Naukydes (?). Vatican Museum, Rome. After Photograph 76
7 A and B. Statues of so-called _Apollos_. A. The _Apollo Choiseul-Gouffier_. British Museum, London. After _Marbles and Bronzes in the British Museum_, Pl. III B. The _Apollo-on-the-Omphalos_. National Museum, Athens. After Photograph by Merlin 90
8 A and B. Statues of so-called _Apollos_. A. The _Apollo of Tenea_. Glyptothek, Munich. After Photograph by Bruckmann. B. _Argive Apollo_, from Delphi. Museum of Delphi. After _Fouilles de Delphes_, IV, 1904, Pl. I 102
9. Statue of an Athlete, by Stephanos. Villa Albani, Rome. After Photograph 114
10. Bronze statue of the _Praying Boy_. Museum of Berlin. After Photograph 132
11. Statue of so-called _Oil-pourer_. Glyptothek, Munich. After Photograph by Bruckmann 134
12. Statue of an _Apoxyomenos_. Uffizi Gallery, Florence. After B. B., No. 523 136
13. Statue of an Athlete, after Polykleitos. Farnsworth Museum, Wellesley College, U. S. A. After Photograph 138
14. Bronze Statue known as the _Idolino_. Museo Archeologico, Florence. After B. B., No. 274 142
15. Marble Head of an Athlete, after Kresilas (?). Metropolitan Museum, New York. After Photograph 144
16. Bronze Statue of the _Seated Boxer_. Museo delle Terme, Rome. After _Ant. Denkm._, I, <f>1</f>, 1886, Pl. IV 146
17. Statue known as the _Farnese Diadoumenos_. British Museum, London. After _Marbles and Bronzes in the British Museum_, Pl. VI 150
18. Statue of the _Diadoumenos_, from Delos. After Polykleitos. National Museum, Athens. After Photograph by Alinari 152
19. Statue known as the _Westmacott Athlete_. British Museum, London. After _Marbles and Bronzes in the British Museum_, Pl. XXII 156
20. Head of an Athlete, School of Praxiteles. Metropolitan Museum, New York. After Photograph 168
21. Statue of _Diomedes with the Palladion_. Glyptothek, Munich. After Photograph 170
22. Statue of the _Diskobolos_, from Castel Porziano, after Myron. Museo delle Terme, Rome. After Photograph by Anderson 184
23. Statue of the _Diskobolos_, after Myron. A bronzed Cast from the Statue in the Vatican and Head from the Statue in the Palazzo Lancellotti, Rome. After B. B., No. 566 186
24. Statue of a Kneeling Youth, from Subiaco. Museo delle Terme, Rome. After Photograph by Anderson 196
25. Marble Group of Pancratiasts. Uffizi Gallery, Florence. After Photo, by Alinari 252
26. Racing Chariot and Horses. From an archaic b.-f. Hydria. Museum of Berlin. After Gerhard, IV, Pls. CCXLIX-CCL 262
27. Statue of a Charioteer (?). Museum of Fine Arts, Boston. After Photo. by Coolidge 276
28. Statue of the Pancratiast Agias, from Delphi. Museum of Delphi. After _Fouilles de Delphes_, IV, Pl. LXIII 286
29. Statue of the _Apoxyomenos_. After Lysippos or his School. Vatican Museum, Rome. After B. B., No. 381 288
30. Statue of _Herakles_. Lansdowne House, London. After Gardner, _Sculpt._, Pl. LVI 298
PLANS.
FACING PAGE
A. The Altis at Olympia in the Greek Period (Third Century B. C.). After Doerpfeld, in _Ergebnisse von Olympia, Karten und Plaene_, No. III 376
B. The Altis at Olympia in the Roman Period (Second Century A. D.). After Doerpfeld, in _Ergebnisse von Olympia, Karten und Plaene_, No. IV 376
TEXT-FIGURES. PAGE
1. So-called _Boxer Vase_, from Hagia Triada. From a Cast (with handle restored) in the Museum of Candia. After H. R. Hall, Aegean Archæology, Pl. XVI 6
2. Bronze Statuette of a Victor, from Olympia. Museum of Olympia. After _Bronz. v. Ol._, Tafelbd., Pl. VIII, No. 57 28
3. Bronze Head of an Olympic Victor, from Beneventum. Louvre, Paris. After Photograph 64
4. Bronze Head of an Olympic Victor, from Herculaneum. Museum of Naples. After B. B., No. 323 (Right) 65
5. Bronze Portrait-statue of a Hellenistic Prince. Museo delle Terme, Rome. After Photograph by Alinari 73
6. Bronze Statuette of _Hermes-Diskobolos_, found in the Sea off Antikythera. National Museum, Athens. After Photograph by Rhomaïdes 79
7. Bronze Statue of a Youth, found in the Sea off Antikythera. National Museum, Athens. After Photograph by Rhomaïdes 80
8. Statue of the so-called _Jason_ (_Sandal-binder_). Louvre, Paris. After Photograph by Giraudon 86
9. Statue of so-called _Apollo of Thera_. National Museum, Athens. After Photograph 101
10. Statue of so-called _Apollo of Orchomenos_. National Museum, Athens. After Photograph 102
11. Statue of so-called _Apollo_, from Mount Ptoion, Bœotia. National Museum, Athens. After Photograph 102
12. Statue of so-called _Apollo of Melos_. National Museum, Athens. After Photograph 103
13. Statues of so-called _Apollos_, from Mount Ptoion. National Museum, Athens. After Photograph 104
14. Statue known as the _Strangford Apollo_. British Museum, London. After _Marbles and Bronzes in the British Museum_, Pl. II 105
15. Bronze Statuette of a Palæstra Victor, from the Akropolis. Akropolis Museum, Athens. After Photograph 108
16. Bronze Statuette, from Ligourió. Museum of Berlin. After _50stes Berliner Winckelmannsprogramm_, 1890, Pl. I (Center and Left) 112
17. Statue of an Ephebe, from the Akropolis. Akropolis Museum, Athens. After Photograph 115
18. Head of an Ephebe, from the Akropolis. Akropolis Museum, Athens. After Photograph by Rhomaïdes 116
19. Bronze Statuette of Apollo, found in the Sea off Piombino. Louvre, Paris. After Photograph by Giraudon 119
20. Figure, from the East Pediment of the Temple on Aegina. Glypothek, Munich. After Photograph by Bruckmann 124
21. Two Figures, from the West Pediment of the Temple on Aegina. Glyptothek, Munich. After Photograph by Bruckmann 125
22. Archaic Marble Head of a Youth. Jacobsen Collection, Ny-Carlsberg Museum, Copenhagen. After Arndt, _La Glyplothèque Ny-Carlsberg_, 1896, Pl. I 128
23. Head of so-called _Oil-pourer_. Museum of Fine Arts, Boston. After Photograph 134
24. Bronze Statuette of an Athlete. Louvre, Paris. After Furtwaengler, _Masterpieces_, Pl. XIII 139
25. Bronze Head of an Athlete, from Herculaneum. Museum of Naples. After B. B., No. 339 (Left) 140
26. Marble Statue of an Athlete (?). National Museum, Athens. After Photograph 143
27. Head from Statue of the _Seated Boxer_ (Pl. 16). Museo delle Terme, Rome. After Photograph by Anderson 146
28. Statue of the _Diadoumenos_, from Vaison, after Polykleitos. British Museum, London. After _Marbles and Bronzes in the British Museum_, Pl. IV 153
29. Head of the _Diadoumenos_, after Polykleitos. Albertinum, Dresden. After Furtwaengler, _Masterpieces_, Pl. X 154
30. Marble Heads of two Hoplitodromoi, from Olympia. Museum of Olympia. After _Bildw. v. Ol._, Tafelbd., Pl. VI, 1-2 and 9-10 162
31. Head of Herakles, from Genzano. British Museum, London. After _Marbles and Bronzes in the British Museum_, Pl. XXI 170
32. Statue of _Harmodios_. Museum of Naples. After B. B., No. 327 174
33. Head of an Athlete, from Perinthos. Albertinum, Dresden. After B. B., No. 542 (Right) 180
34. Statue of the _Diskobolos_, after Myron. Vatican Museum, Rome. After Photograph 185
35. Statue of the _Diskobolos_, after Myron. British Museum, London. After _Marbles and Bronzes in the British Museum_, Pl. XLVII 186
36. A and B. Athletic Scenes from a Bacchic Amphora in Rome. A. Stadiodromoi and Leaper. B. Diskobolos and Akontistai. After Gerhard, IV, Pl. CCLIX 192
37. Athletic Scenes from a Sixth-century B. C. Panathenaic Amphora. Stadiodromoi (Left) and Dolichodromoi (Right). After _Mon. d. I._, I, 1829-33, Pl. XXII, 6 b, 7 b 193
38. Statue of a Runner. Palazzo dei Conservatori, Rome. After Photograph by Anderson 198
39. Statue of a Runner. Palazzo dei Conservatori, Rome. After Photograph by Anderson 198
40. Statue of the so-called _Thorn-puller_ (the _Spinario_). Palazzo dei Conservatori, Rome. After B. B., No. 321 200
41. Hoplitodromes. Scenes from a r.-f. Kylix. Museum of Berlin. After Gerhard, IV, Pl. CCLXI 205
42. Bronze Statuette of a Hoplitodrome (?). University Museum, Tuebingen. After _Jb._, I, 1886, Pl. IX (Right) 206
43. Statue of the so-called _Borghese Warrior_. Louvre, Paris. After Photograph 208
44. Pentathletes. Scene from a Panathenaic Amphora in the British Museum, London. After _J. H. S._, XXVII, 1907, Pl. XVIII 211
45. Statue of a Boy Victor (the _Dresden Boy_). Albertinum, Dresden. After Furtwaengler, _Masterpieces_, Pl. XII 213
46. Bronze Statuette of a _Diskobolos_. Metropolitan Museum, New York. After Photograph 220
47. Bust of the _Doryphoros_, after Polykleitos, by Apollonios. Museum of Naples. After Photograph by Alinari 224
48. Statue of the _Doryphoros_, after Polykleitos. Vatican Museum, Rome. After Photograph by Anderson 225
49. Wrestling Scenes. From Obverse of an Amphora, by Andokides. Museum of Berlin. After _A. J. A._, XI, 1896, P. 11, Fig. 9 230
50. Wrestling and Boxing Scenes. From a r.-f. Kylix. University of Pennsylvania Museum, Philadelphia. After Photograph 231
51. Bronze Statues of Wrestlers. Museum of Naples. After B. B., No. 354 232
52. Bronze Arm of Statue of a Boxer, found in the Sea off Antikythera. National Museum, Athens. After Svoronos, Pl. V, No. 4 237
53. Forearm with Glove. From the Statue of the _Seated Boxer_ (Pl. 16). Museo delle Terme, Rome. After Juethner, Fig. 62 238
54. Boxing Scenes. From a r.-f. Kylix by Douris. British Museum, London. After _J. H. S._, XXVI, 1906, Pl. XII 240
55. Boxing and Pankration Scenes. From a r.-f. Kylix. British Museum, London. After _J. H. S._, XXVI, Pl. XIII 241
56. Boxing Scene. From a b.-f. Panathenaic Panel-amphora. University of Pennsylvania Museum, Philadelphia. After Photograph 242
57. Statue of a Boxer, from Sorrento. By Koblanos of Aphrodisias. Museum of Naples. After B. B., No. 614 242
58. Statue known as _Pollux_. Louvre, Paris. After Photograph by Giraudon 245
59. Pankration Scene. From a Panathenaic Amphora by Kittos. British Museum, London. After _J. H. S._, XXVI, 1906, Pl. III 248
60. Bronze Statuette of a Pancratiast (?), from Autun, France. Louvre, Paris. After Bulle, Pl. 96 (Right) 250
61. Bronze Head of a Boxer(?), from Olympia. A (Profile); B (Front). National Museum, Athens. After _Bronz. v. Ol._, Tafelbd., Pl. II, 2a and 2 254
62. Bronze Foot of a Victor Statue, from Olympia. Museum of Olympia. After _Bronz. v. Ol._, Tafelbd., Pl. III, 3 253
63. Charioteer Mounting a Chariot. Bas-relief from the Akropolis. Akropolis Museum, Athens. After Photograph 270
64. _Apobates_ and Chariot. Relief from the North Frieze of the Parthenon, Athens. After Photograph 273
65. Charioteer. Relief from the small Frieze of the Mausoleion, Halikarnassos. British Museum, London. After Photograph 274
66. Bronze Statue of the Delphi _Charioteer_. Museum of Delphi. After _Fouilles de Delphes_, IV, Pl. L 277
67. Horse-racer. From a Sixth-century B. C. b.-f. Panathenaic Vase. British Museum, London. After Gerhard, IV, Pl. CCLVII (Bottom). 280
68. Head from the Statue of Agias (Pl. 28). Museum of Delphi. After _Fouilles de Delphes_, IV, Pl. LXIV 287
69. Marble Head, from Olympia. Three-quarters Front View (_Cf._ Frontispiece). Museum of Olympia. After _Bildw. v. Ol._, Tafelbd., Pl. LIV, 4 293
70. Profile Drawings of the Heads of the _Agias_ and the _Philandridas_. After _A. J. A._, XI, 1907, p. 403, Fig. 6 295
71. Head of the Statue of Herakles (Pl. 30). Lansdowne House, London. After Gardner, _Sculpt._, Pl. LVII 298
72. Marble Head of a Boy, found near the Akropolis, Sparta. In Private Possession in Philadelphia, U. S. A. After Photograph 305
73. So-called Head of Herakles from Tegea, by Skopas. National Museum, Athens. After _B. C. H._, XXV, 1901, Pl. VII 307
74. Attic Grave-relief, found in the Bed of the Ilissos, Athens. National Museum, Athens. After A. Conze, _Attische Grabreliefs_, Pl. CCXI 312
75. Statue of the so-called _Meleager_. Vatican Museum, Rome. After Photograph 313
76. Head of the so-called _Meleager_. Villa Medici, Rome. After _Ant. Denkm._, I, Pl. XI, 2a 314
77. Torso of the so-called _Meleager_. Fogg Art Museum, Cambridge, Mass. After Photograph 315
78. Small Marble Torso of a Boy Victor, from Olympia. Museum of Olympia. After _Bildw. v. Ol._, Tafelbd., Pl. LVI, 2 325
79. Stone Statue of the Olympic Victor, Arrhachion, from Phigalia. In the Guards’ House at Bassai (Phigalia). After Photograph 327
80. Statues of Ra-nefer and Tepemankh, from Sakkarah. Museum of Cairo. After Bulle, Pl. 5 331
THE MOST COMMON ABBREVIATIONS USED IN THE NOTES.
_A. A._
_Archaeologischer Anzeiger_, Beiblatt zum Jahrbuch, 1889-.
_Afr._
S. Iulii Africani Ὀλυμπιάδων ἀναγραφή, _apud_ Euseb., _Chron._, ed. A. Schoene, I, pp. 194-220. Berlin, 1875. See also Rutgers.
_A. G._
_Anthologia Graeca_, cur. F. Jacobs, I-III. Leipsic, 1813-1817.
_A. Pl._
_Anthologia Planudea_, in _A. G._, II, 1814.
_A. J. A._
_American Journal of Archæology_, 1st series, 1885-1896; 2d series, 1897-.
_A. M._
_Mitteilungen des kaiserlich deutschen archaeologischen Instituts_, Athenische Abteilung. Athens, 1876-.
Amelung, _Fuehrer_
W. Amelung, _Fuehrer durch die Antiken in Florenz_. Munich, 1897.
Amelung, _Vat._
W. Amelung, _Die Skulpturen des Vatikanischen Museums_, Textbd., I-II: Tafelbd., I-II. Berlin, 1903, 1908.
_Annali_
_Annali dell’ Instituto di Corrispondenza archeologica._ Rome, 1829-1885.
_Ant. Denkm._
_Antike Denkmaeler_, herausgegeben vom kaiserlich deutschen archaeologischen Institut. Berlin, 1886-.
_Arch. Eph._
Ἀρχαιολογικὴ Ἐφημερίς. Athens, 3d Per., 1883-. (The title before 1910 was Ἐφημερὶς Ἀρχαιολογική.)
Arndt-Amelung
_Photographische Einzelaufnahmen antiker Skulpturen_ (with text). Munich, 1893-1902. Cited in German publications as _Einzelverkauf_.
_A. Z._
_Archaeologische Zeitung._ Berlin, 1843-1885.
Baum.
A. Baumeister, _Denkmaeler des klassischen Altertums_, I-III. Munich and Leipsic, 1889.
B. B.
Brunn-Bruckmann, _Denkmaeler griechischer und roemischer Skulptur_. Munich, 1888. Text from No. 500 (1897-) by F. Arndt. (Plates cited by number).
_B. C. H._
_Bulletin de Correspondance hellénique._ Paris, 1877-.
_Bildw. v. Ol._
_Olympia, Die Ergebnisse_, Text- und Tafelbd., III, _Die Bildwerke von Olympia in Stein und Thon_. By G. Treu. Berlin, 1897.
_B. M. Bronz._
_Catalogue of the Bronzes, Greek, Roman, and Etruscan, in the British Museum._ By H. B. Walters. London, 1899.
_B. M. Sculpt._
_Catalogue of Sculpture in the British Museum_, I-III. By A. H. Smith. London, 1892-1904.
_B. M. Vases_
_Catalogue of the Greek and Etruscan Vases in the British Museum._ I, 2, II, IV, by H. B. Walters; III, by C. H. Smith. London, 1893-1912.
Boeckh
A. Boeckh, _Pindari Opera_, II, _Scholia_. Leipsic, 1819.
_Bronz. v. Ol._
_Olympia, Die Ergebnisse_, Text- und Tafelbd., IV, _Die Bronzen und die uebrigen kleineren Funde von Olympia_. By A. Furtwaengler. Berlin, 1890.
Brunn
H. Brunn, _Geschichte der griechischen Kuenstler_, I (Bildhauer). Brunswick, 1853. (Reprinted, Stuttgart, 1889).
_B. S. A._
_Annual of the British School at Athens._ London, 1894-1895-.
Bulle
H. Bulle, _Der schoene Mensch im Altertum_. Second edition, Munich and Leipsic, 1912. (= Vol. I of G. Hirth’s _Der Stil_.)
_B. Com. Rom._
_Bulletino della Commissione Archeologica Comunale di Roma._ Rome, 1872-.
_Bull. d. Inst._
_Bulletino dell’ Instituto di Corrispondenza archeologica._ Rome, 1829-1885.
_C. I. A._
_Corpus Inscriptionum Atticarum_, I-IV. Berlin, 1873-1897. (I, ed. A. Kirchhoff; II, Pts. 1-4, and IV, Pts. 1-2, ed. U. Koehler; III, Pts. 1-2, ed. W. Dittenberger).
_C. I. G._
_Corpus Inscriptionum Graecarum_, I-IV. Berlin, 1828-1877. (I-II, ed. A. Boeckh; III, ed. J. Franz: IV, ed. E. Curtius and A. Kirchhoff.)
Clarac
F. de Clarac, _Musée de sculpture antique et moderne_. Text, I-VI: Plates, I-VI. Paris, 1826-1853. See also Reinach, _Rép._
Collignon
M. Collignon, _Histoire de la sculpture grecque_, I-II. Paris, 1892, 1897.
_C. R. Acad. Inscr._
_Comptes-Rendus de l’Académie des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres._ Paris, 1857-.
Dar.-Sagl.
C. Daremberg, E. Saglio, et E. Pottier, _Dictionnaire des antiquités grecques et romaines_. Paris, 1877-1918.
Dickins
G. Dickins, _Catalogue of the Akropolis Museum_, I (Archaic Sculpture). Cambridge, 1912.
Duetschke
H. Duetschke, _Antike Bildwerke in Oberitalien_, I-IV. Leipsic, 1874-1880. (Works of art cited by number.)
_F. H. G._
_Fragmenta historiorum Graecorum_, coll. C. Muellerus, I-IV. Paris, 1841-1851.
Foerster
H. Foerster, _Die Sieger in den Olympischen Spielen_. Wissenschaftliche Beilage zum Programm des Gymnasiums zu Zwickau, 1891, 1892. (The numbers refer to victors in chronological order.)
Frazer
Sir J. G. Frazer, _Pausanias’s Description of Greece_, I-VI. London, 1898.
Froehner, _Notice_
W. Froehner, _Notice de la sculpture ant. du musée impérial du Louvre_. Paris, 1869.
Furtw., _Mp._
A. Furtwaengler, _Masterpieces of Greek Sculpture_. Translated and enlarged from the following work, by Miss Eugénie Sellers (now Mrs. Strong). London, 1895.
Furtw., _Mw._
A. Furtwaengler, _Meisterwerke der griechischen Plastik_. Leipsic and Berlin, 1893.
F. W.
C. Friederichs, _Bausteine zur Geschichte d. griech.-roem. Plastik_, 1868. Revised edition, entitled Die Gipsabguesse antiker Bildwerke, by P. Wolters. Berlin, 1885.
Gardiner
E. Norman Gardiner, _Greek Athletic Sports and Festivals_. London, 1910.
Gardner, _Hbk._
E. A. Gardner, _A Handbook of Greek Sculpture_. Second edition revised. London, 1915.
Gardner, _Sculpt._
E. A. Gardner, _Six Greek Sculptors_. London, 1910.
_Gaz. arch._
_Gazette archéologique_. Paris, 1875—.
_Gaz. B.-A._
_Gazette des Beaux-Arts._ Paris, Pér. I, 1859-1868; II, 1869-1888; III, 1889—.
Gerhard
E. Gerhard, _Auserlesene Vasenbilder_, Vol. IV (_Alltagsleben_). Berlin, 1840.
Helbig, _Fuehrer_
W. Helbig, and others, _Fuehrer durch die oeffentlichen Sammlungen klassischer Altertuemer in Rom_. Third edition, I-II. Leipsic, 1912, 1913.
Helbig, _Guide_
_Guide to the Public Collections of Classical Antiquities in Rome._ Translation from the preceding work (1st ed.) by J. F. and F. Muirhead, I-II. Leipsic, 1895, 1896.
Hitz.-Bluemn.
H. Hitzig et H. Bluemner, _Pausaniae Graeciae Descriptio_. I-III (Each in 2 Parts). Leipsic, 1896-1907.
Hyde
Gualterus (= Walter Woodburn) Hyde, _de olympionicarum Statuis a Pausania commemoratis_. Halle, 1902; enlarged, 1903. Numbers cited refer to victors in the order given by Pausanias.
_I. G._
_Inscriptiones Graecae_ (for contents and numbering of volumes, see _A. J. A._, IX, 1905, pp. 96-97).
_I. G. A._
_Inscriptiones Graecae antiquissimae praeter Atticas in Attica repertas._ Ed. H. Roehl. Berlin, 1882.
_I. G. B._
_Inschriften griechischer Bildhauer._ Ed. E. Loewy. Leipsic, 1885.
_Inschr. v. Ol._
_Olympia, Die Ergebnisse_, Textbd., V, _Die Inschriften von Olympia_. By W. Dittenberger and K. Purgold. Berlin, 1896.
_Jb._
_Jahrbuch des kaiserlich deutschen archaeologischen Instituts._ Berlin, 1886—.
Jex-Blake
K. Jex-Blake and E. Sellers, _The Elder Pliny’s Chapters on the History of Art_ (chiefly Bks. XXXIV-XXXVI of the _Historia Naturalis_, cited as _H. N._). London and New York, 1896.
_Jh. oest. arch. Inst._
_Jahreshefte des oesterreichischen archaeologischen Institutes in Wien._ Vienna, 1898—.
_J. H. S._
_Journal of Hellenic Studies._ London, 1880—.
Joubin
A. Joubin, _La Sculpture grecque entre les Guerres Médiques et l’Époque de Périclès_. Paris, 1901.
Juethner
J. Juethner, _Ueber antike Turngeraethe_. Vienna, 1896.
Juethner, _Ph._
J. Juethner, _Philostratos ueber Gymnastik_. Leipsic and Berlin, 1909.
Kabbadias
P. Kabbadias, Γλυπτὰ τοῦ Ἐθνικοῦ Μουσείου. Athens, 1890-1892.
Klein
W. Klein, _Geschichte der griechischen Kunst_, I-III. Leipsic, 1904-1907.
Krause
J. H. Krause, _Die Gymnastik und Agonistik der Hellenen_, I-II. Leipsic, 1841.
Lechat
H. Lechat, _La Sculpture attique avant Phidias_. Paris, 1904.
Lechat, _Au Musée_
H. Lechat, _Au Musée de l’Acropole d’Athènes_. Lyon, 1903.
Mach, von
E. von Mach, _A Handbook of Greek and Roman Sculpture_, I-II (Text and University Prints). Boston, 1914.
M. D.
F. Matz and F. von Duhn, _Antike Bildwerke in Rom_., I-III. Leipsic, 1881-1882.
Michaelis
A. Michaelis, _Ancient Marbles in Great Britain_. Translated from the German by C. A. M. Fennell. Cambridge, 1882.
_Mon. d. I._
_Monumenti inediti dell’ Instituto di Corrispondenza archeologica._ Rome, 1829-1885.
_Mon. ant._
_Monumenti antichi publicati per cura della Reale Accademia dei Lincei._ Rome, 1889—.
_Mon. gr._
_Monuments grecs publiés par l’Association pour l’Encouragement des Études grecques en France_, 1872—. (Vol. I, containing reprints of articles from 1872, appeared in 1881).
_Mon. Piot._
_Monuments et Mémoires publiés par l’Académie des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres._ Fondation Eugène Piot. Paris, 1894—.
Murray
A. S. Murray, _A History of Greek Sculpture_. Second edition, I-II. London, 1890.
_Museum Marbles_
_A Description of the Ancient Marbles in the British Museum_, Pts. I-XI. London, 1812-1861.
M. W.
K. O. Mueller and F. Wieseler, _Denkmaeler der alten Kunst_. Goettingen, 1854-1877.
_Not. Scav._
_Notizie degli Scavi di Antichità comunicate alla Reale Accademia dei Lincei._ Rome, 1876—.
Overbeck
J. Overbeck, _Geschichte der griech. Plastik_. Fourth edition, I-II. Leipsic, 1893-1898.
_Oxy. Pap._
_The Oxyrhynchus Papyri_, ed. by B. P. Grenfell and A. S. Hunt, II, pp. 22 f. London, 1899.
P.
_Pausaniae Graeciae descriptio_, rec. F. Spiro, I-III. Leipsic, 1903.
Pauly-Wissowa
G. Wissowa and W. Kroll, _Pauly’s Real-encyclopaedie der classischen Altertumswissenschaft_. Stuttgart, 1894—.
Perrot-Chipiez
G. Perrot and Ch. Chipiez, _Histoire de l’art dans l’antiquité_: VI (_La Grèce primitive_); VIII, _La Grèce archaïque_. Paris, 1894, 1903.
Ph.
Philostratos, _de Arte gymnastica_, ed. Juethner, 1909 (see Juethner, _Ph._).
Pliny, _H. N._
See Jex-Blake.
_P. l. G._
_Poetae lyrici Graeci_, rec. Th. Bergk. Fourth edition, I-III. Leipsic, 1878-1882. I, Pt. 1 = ed. 5, rec. O. Schroeder, 1900.
Rayet
O. Rayet, ed. _Monuments de l’Art antique_, I-II. Paris, 1884.
Reinach, _Rép._
S. Reinach, _Répertoire de la statuaire grecque et romaine_, I, second edition; II, Pts. 1, 2, second edition; 111-IV, first edition. Paris 1904-1910. I = Reprint of Clarac = _Clarac de poche_.
Reinach, _Têtes_
S. Reinach, _Recueil de têtes antiques ideales et idealisées_. Paris, 1903.
Reisch
E. Reisch, _Griechische Weihgeschenke_. Vienna, 1890.
_R. Arch._
_Revue Archéologique._ Paris, Sér. 1, 1844-1860; II, 1860-1882; III, 1883-1902; IV, 1903—.
_R. Ét. Gr._
_Revue des Études grecques._ Paris, 1888—.
Richardson
R. B. Richardson, _A History of Greek Sculpture_. New York, 1911.
Ridder, de
A. de Ridder, _Catalogue des bronzes trouves sur l’acropole d’Athenes_. Paris, 1896.
_R. M._
_Mitteilungen des kaiserlich deutschen archaeologischen Instituts_, Roemische Abteilung. Rome, 1886—.
Robert, _O. S._
C. Robert, Die Ordnung der Olympischen Spiele und die Sieger der 75.-83. Olympiade: _Hermes_, XXXV, 1900, pp. 141 f.
Roscher, _Lex._
W. H. Roscher, _Lexikon der griechischen und roemischen Mythologie_. Leipsic, 1884—.
Rouse
W. D. Rouse, _Greek Votive Offerings_. Cambridge, 1902.
Rutgers
J. R. Rutgers, _S. Julii Africani_ Ὀλυμπιάδων ἀναγραφή. Leyden, 1862.
Scherer
Chr. Scherer, _de olympionicarum Statuis_, Diss. inaug., Goettingen, 1885.
_Sitzb. Muen. Akad._
_Sitzungsberichte der philosophisch-philologischen und der historischen Klasse der koeniglich Bayerischen Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Muenchen._ Munich, 1871—.
_Specimens_
_Specimens of Ancient Sculpture ... Selected from different Collections in Great Britain by the Society of Dilettanti_, I-III. London, 1809-1835.
Springer-Michaelis
A. Springer and A. Michaelis, _Handbuch der Kunstgeschichte_, I. _Das Altertum_. Ninth edition. Leipsic, 1911.
_S. Q._
_Die Antiken Schriftquellen zur Geschichte der bildenden Kuenste bei den Griechen_, ed. J. Overbeck. Leipsic, 1868.
Staïs, _Marbres et Bronzes_
V. Staïs, _Marbres et Bronzes du Musée National d’Athènes_. Second edition. Athens, 1910.
Svoronos
J. N. Svoronos, _Das Athener National Museum_. Text and Plates, I-III. Athens, 1908-1911.
Other abbreviations will be readily understood.
_CORRIGENDA._
Besides the following, there are a few other corrections which are so obvious that they scarcely need to be listed.
Page 2, note 1, _for_ ragmentary _read_ fragmentary.
10, line 2, (and Index), _for_ Archermoros _read_ Archemoros.
14, note 2, _after_ 202f. _add_ Dar.-Sagl., IV, i, pp. 194 f., list 34 local _Olympia_.
15, line 6, _for_ Dorian Eleans _read_ Dorian allies, the Eleans.
24, line 27, _for_ 173 A. D. _read_ 173 or 174 A. D. 26, line 27, _for_ archaistic _read_ archaic.
31, lines 8-9, _for Papyrus_ read _Papyri_; line 20, _for_ Aigira _read_ Aigeira.
46, note 1, line 2, _add_ The Solonian cubit of 444 mm. gives 17.53 inches, the finger .73 inch, which makes Diagoros’ statue 6 feet 1.75 inches tall.
58, note 2, _for_ statues of all _read_ statues by all.
60, note 1, for _Vespes_ read _Vespae_; note 5, for Koponios _read_ Coponius.
77, line 18, _for_ staute _read_ statue; note 3, line 11, _for_ Encrinomenos _read_ Encrinomenus.
82, lines 14-15, _for_ in and not outside _read_ outside and not inside.
83, line 15, _for_ Svonoros _read_ Svoronos.
84, line 2 (and Index, _s. v._ Ball-playing), for φανίνδα _read_ φαινίνδα.
96, note 1, line 6, for _Hermes_ read _Herakles_.
110, line 20, and note 1, line 9 (and Index), _for_ Argeidas _read_ Argeiadas.
128, note 4, for _Glyptothek_ read _Glyptothèque_.
131, line 12 (and Index, _s. v._ Praxiteles), _for_ ψελιομένη _read_ ψελιουμένη.
149, note 2, _for_ ξωστήρ _read_ ζωστήρ.
153, line 3, _for_ arms _read_ hands.
166, line 17, _for_ Stronganoff _read_ Stroganoff.
185, lines 4 and 8, and 186, line 3, _for_ Lancelotti _read_ Lancellotti.
188, note 8, line 3, _for_ Perseus _read_ Akrisios.
189, note 1, for _Papyrus_ read _Papyri_; _for_ Beilage _read_ Beilag.
191, line 21, _for_ eponymous _read_ eponymus.
196, line 25, and 197, note 2, _for_ Θῦμον _read_ Θυμόν.
210, line 5, _for_ αλμα _read_ ἅλμα.
235, note 1, line 2, _omit_ as.
253, line 27, _for_ 1202 _read_ 1204.
265, line 14, _for_ Paunasias _read_ Pausanias.
268, line 26 (and Index, _s. v._ Nikomachos and _Victoria_), for _sublimine_ read _sublime_.
288, line 10 (and Index), _for_ Tenerari _read_ Tenerani.
321, line 29, _for_ inventors _read_ so-called inventors.
327, line 3, _for_ stautes _read_ statues.
341, line 33, _last word of line should be_ δεξιᾷ.
348, line 28, for _prothusis_ read _prothysis_.
CHAPTER I.
EARLY GREEK GAMES AND PRIZES.
PLATE 1 AND FIGURES 1 AND 2.
Before attempting to trace historically the development of monuments of victors in the gymnic and hippic contests at Olympia, and before attempting to reconstruct their different types, it will be useful to devote a preliminary chapter to the early history of Greek athletics and victor prizes in general.
It is a truism that the origin of Greek athletics is not to be found in the recently discovered Aegean civilization of Crete, nor in the latest phase of the same culture on Mycenæan sites of the mainland of Greece. Their origin is not to be sought in the indigenous Mediterranean stock which produced that culture, but rather among the northern invaders of Greece, the fair-haired Achæans of the Homeric poems, and especially among the later Dorians in the Peloponnesus. It was to the physical vigor of these strangers rather than to the more artistic nature of the Mediterraneans that the later Greeks owed their interest in sports. As these invaders settled themselves most firmly in the Peloponnesus, Greek athletics may be said to be chiefly the product of South Greece. It was here that three of the four national festivals grew up—at Olympia, Nemea, and on the Corinthian Isthmus. It was in the schools of Argos and Sikyon that athletic sculpture flourished best and in later Greek history physical exercise was most fully developed among the Dorian Spartans.[1]
SPORTS IN CRETE.
Centuries before the Achæan civilization of Greece had bloomed, there developed among the Minoans of Crete a passion for certain acrobatic performances and for gymnastics. These Cretans, though strongly influenced by Egypt and the East, did not borrow their love of sport from outside any more than did the later Achæans. On the walls of the tombs of Beni-Hasan on the Nile are pictured many athletic sports, including a series of several hundred wrestling groups,[2] but these sports did not influence, so far as we know, Cretan athletics. At Knossos bull-grappling seems to have been the national sport, as we see from the frescoes on the palace walls. In the absence of the horse, which did not appear in early Aegean times in Crete, it is not difficult to understand the development of gymnastic sports with bulls. At Knossos a seal has been found which shows the rude drawing of a vessel with rowers seated under a canopy, superimposed on which is drawn the greater portion of a huge horse. In this design, dating from about 1600 B. C. and synchronizing with the earlier part of the eighteenth Egyptian dynasty, we doubtless see a graphic way of indicating the cargo, and consequently a contemporary record, it may be, of the first importation of horses from Libya into Crete.[3]
The Cretan bull seems to have been a much larger animal than the species found upon the island to-day.[4] Bull-grappling at Knossos was the sport of female as well as male toreadors. A fragmentary rectangular fresco, dating from about 1500 B. C. (Pl. 1), was discovered there by Sir Arthur Evans in 1901 and is now in the Candia museum. It is executed with extraordinary spirit and shows a huge bull rushing forward with lowered head and tail straight out. A man is in the act of turning a somersault on its back, his legs in the air, his arms grasping the bull’s body and his head raised, looking back to the rear of the animal, where a cowgirl is standing, holding out her arms to catch his flying figure as soon as his feat is concluded. Another cowgirl, at the extreme left, seems to be suspended from the bull’s horns, which pass under her armpits, while she catches hold further up. However, she is not being tossed, but is taking position preliminary to leaping over the bull’s back. Both the man and the women wear striped boots and bracelets; the women are apparently distinguished by their white skin, short drawers, yellow sashes embroidered with red, and the red-and-blue diadems around their brows.[5] On the opposite wall a similar scene was pictured; among its stucco fragments was found the representation of the arm and shoulder of a woman grasping a bull by the horns. The fragmentary representation of another woman and man was also found.
[Illustration: PLATE 1
Bull-grappling Scene. Wall-painting from Knossos. Museum of Candia.]
A very similar scene has long been known from a fresco painting from Tiryns, now in Athens.[6] A bull is represented galloping to the left, while a man[7] clings to its horns with his right hand and is swept along with one foot lightly touching the bull’s back and the other swung aloft. Most early writers interpreted this scene as a bull-hunt, the artist having drawn the hunter above the bull through ignorance of perspective. The execution is very inferior, three attempts of the bungling painter being visible in the painting of the tail and the front legs. Others saw in it the representation of an acrobat showing his dexterity by leaping upon the back of an animal in full career, recalling the description of such a trick in the Iliad, where Ajax is represented as rushing over the plain like a man who, while driving four horses, leaps from horse to horse.[8] But this figure must take its place side by side with the one from Knossos just described as another bull-grappling scene. That such sports were not held in the open air, but in an enclosed courtyard, is shown by the seal from Praisos now in the Candia Museum, which depicts a man vaulting on the back of a gigantic ox within a paved enclosure.[9] Doubtless the theatral areas discovered at Phaistos by the Italian Archæological Mission[10] and at Knossos by Sir Arthur Evans in 1903[11] were not large enough for bull scenes and were used merely for ceremonial dancing and perhaps for the boxing matches to be described.[12] Similar acrobats are doubtless to be recognized in the two beautiful ivory statuettes, only 11.5 inches in height, of so-called leapers, found by Dr. Evans at Knossos in 1901.[13] These masterpieces of the late Minoan II period represent acrobats (one is probably a woman) darting through the air. “The life, the freedom, the _élan_ of these figures is nothing short of marvellous,” writes Dr. Evans, who calls attention to the careful physical training shown in their slender legs and in the muscles, even the veins on the back of the hands and the finger-nails being plainly indicated as well as the details of the skinfolds at the joints. They doubtless formed a part of an ivory model of the bull-ring and are meant for miniature toreadors, who were hung in the air by fine gold wires[14] over the backs of ivory bulls who stood on the solid ground. The heads of the figures are thrown backwards, a posture suitable for such vaulters, but not for leapers or divers. Minoan art culminated in these statuettes and in certain stucco figures in half relief found also at Knossos. Only a few fragments of these reliefs have survived, most of which were decorative or architectonic in character, though among them were also found human _disjecta membra_ in high relief, such as the fragment of a left forearm holding a horn, and not a pointed vase, as Dr. Evans thought. Here the muscles are well indicated, though the veins are exaggerated.[15] This fragment may well be a part of the same bull-grappling scenes as those in the frescoes, as also the life-like image of a bull, the details of whose head, mouth, eyes, and nostrils are full of expression, and whose muscles are perfectly indicated.
When compared with the monuments described, the similarity of details on the design of the Vapheio cups ornamented in repoussé, the “most splendid specimens known of the work of the Minoan goldsmith,”[16] never again equalled until the Italian Renaissance, makes it more than possible that here again we have scenes of bull-grappling rather than of bull-hunting. On one cup is represented a quiet pastoral scene—a man tying the legs of a bull with a rope, while two other bulls stand near, amicably licking one another, and a third is quietly grazing. On the other, however, are represented scenes of a very different character. In the centre is a furious bull entangled in a net, which is fastened to a tree; to the left a figure, doubtless a woman, is holding on to a bull’s head, while a man has fallen on his head beside the animal, both man and woman being dressed in the Cretan fashion. A third bull rushes furiously by to the right. Most commentators have seen bull-hunting scenes on both these cups. Thus, on the first cup were represented three scenes in the drama of trapping a bull by means of a tame decoy cow; to the right the bull is starting to go to the rendezvous, while in the center the bull stands by the cow’s side and to the left he is finally trapped and tied.[17] On the other cup the furious animal at the left was supposed to have thrown one hunter and to have caught another on its horns. But Mosso’s interpretation of this design seems to be the right one.[18] The two persons struggling with the bull have no lasso and so can hardly be hunters; besides, if the bull had impaled a hunter with its horns, the hunter would have been represented with his head up and not down. The figure is, however, uninjured and holds on with its knee bent over one horn and its shoulder against the other; it is merely, therefore, intended for a woman acrobat. The net shown in the centre was never used for hunting wild bulls; more probably it was intended as an obstacle in racing. The fallen man has been standing on the netted bull, which, with the gymnast on its back, was expected to have leaped over the net, but has not succeeded; consequently, the acrobat has been tumbled over the bull’s head.
This ancient Cretan sport seems to have been similar to that known in Thessaly and elsewhere in historical days as τὰ ταυροκαθάψια.[19] A survival of it still persists to our day in certain parts of Italy, as, _e. g._, in the province of Viterbo.[20]
Acrobatic feats of various sorts were attractive to the later Greeks from the time of Homer down. We have already mentioned one passage from the Iliad in which a driver of four horses leaps from horse to horse in motion. On the shield of Achilles tumblers appeared among the dancers on the dancing-place.[21] Patroklos ironically remarks over the body of Kebriones, as the charioteer falls headlong like a diver from his chariot when hit by a missile, that there are tumblers also among the Trojans.[22] In later centuries the Athenians evinced a great attraction to acrobatic feats. The story told of Hippokleides[23] reveals that high-born Athenians did not disdain to practice them. They appear to have formed a sort of side-show attraction at the Panathenaic festival, as such scenes occur frequently on Attic vases. Thus on an early (imitation?) Panathenaic vase from Kameiros in the Bibliothèque Nationale in Paris,[24] there is represented behind the driver a man standing on the back of a horse, armed with a helmet and two shields, while in front another appears to be balancing himself on a pole.
But such acrobatic scenes as those of Crete and later Greece can not properly be classed as athletic. They betoken more the love of excitement than of true sport. The only form of real athletics represented on Minoan monuments, one which was classed in later Greece as one of the national sports, was that of boxing, which seems to have been the favorite gymnastic contest of the Cretans, as it always was of the later Greeks. Boxing scenes appear on seals,[25] on a steatite fragment of a pyxis found in 1901 at Knossos and, in conjunction with a bull-grappling scene, on the so-called _Boxer Vase_ found by the Italians at Hagia Triada (Fig. 1). The vase is a cone-shaped rhyton of steatite, 18 inches high, originally overlaid with gold foil. It belongs to the best period of Cretan art, late Minoan I.[26] This vase alone, if no other monumental evidence were at hand, would suffice to show the physical prowess and love of sport of the Minoans. Because of its scenes of boxing and bull-grappling Mosso calls it “the most complete monument that we have of gymnastic exercise in the Mediterranean civilization.”[27] The later Greek tradition of the high degree of physical development attained by the Cretans is proved by this monument.[28]
[Illustration: FIG. 1.—So-called _Boxer Vase_, from Hagia Triada (Cast). Museum of Candia.]
The reliefs are arranged in four horizontal zones.[29] One of these, the second from the top, represents a bull-grappling scene, showing two racing bulls, upon the head and horns of one of which a gymnast has vaulted (not being tossed and helpless, as most interpreters think).[30] The other three represent boxers in all attitudes of the prize-ring, hitting, guarding, falling, and even kicking, as in the later Greek pankration. Some are victorious, the left arm being extended on guard and the right drawn back to strike; one (in the top zone) is ready to spring, just as Hector was ready to spring on Achilles;[31] others are prostrate on the ground with their feet in the air. The violence of the action recalls the boast of Epeios in the famous match in the Iliad that he will break his adversary’s bones.[32]
The method of attack by the right arm and defense by the left is the same as that formerly used by English pugilists. In the topmost zone the combatants wear helmets with visors, cheek-pieces, and horse-hair plumes, and also shoes; in the third zone down the pugilists also wear helmets, though of a different pattern, while the bottom zone shows figures, perhaps youths, with bare heads. Some of the boxers appear to wear boxing-gloves. In the lowest zone we see the well-known feat of swinging the antagonist up by the legs and throwing him—if we may so conclude from the contorted position of the vanquished, whose legs are in the air.
A similar figure appears in relief on the fragment of a pyxis found at Knossos.[33] A youth with clenched fists stands with left arm extended as if to ward off a blow, while his right arm is drawn back and rests on his hip; below we see the bent knee of a prostrate figure, evidently that of his vanquished opponent. The boxer has a wasp-like waist and wears a metal girdle. His left leg is well modeled, the muscles not being exaggerated.
ATHLETICS IN HOMER.
We have evidence, therefore, that the love of sport existed in Crete as it has existed in all countries since. But the comparatively unathletic character of the Aegean culture is shown by the complete absence of athletic representations—apart from bull-grappling scenes—in the art of its last phase at Mycenæ and Tiryns on the mainland. This is an independent argument for the view that the civilization of the mainland was chiefly the product of the old Mediterranean stock, which was finally conquered by the invading Achæans, who are represented in Homer as skilled gymnasts. In Homer we are immediately conscious of being in another world, for here we are in an atmosphere of true athletics, which are fully developed and quite secular in character.[34] They are, however, wholly spontaneous, for there are as yet neither meets nor organized training, neither stadia, gymnasia, nor palæstræ; for such an organization of athletics did not exist until the sixth century B. C. But Homer’s account of the funeral games of Patroklos is pervaded by a spirit of true athletics and has a perennial attraction for every lover of sport. Walter Leaf says of the chariot-race, which is the culminating feature of the description, that it is “a piece of narrative as truthful in its characters as it is dramatic and masterly in description.”[35] Such a description could have been composed only by a poet who belonged to a people long acquainted with athletics and intensely interested in them. Nestor often speaks of a remoter past, when the gods and heroes contended. Odysseus says he could not have fought with Herakles nor Eurytos, heroes of the olden time, “who contended with the immortal gods.” The Homeric warrior was distinguished from the merchant by his knowledge of sport. Thus Euryalos of the Phaiakians says in no complimentary tone to Odysseus: “No truly, stranger, nor do I think thee at all like one that is skilled in games ... rather art thou such an one as comes and goes in a benched ship, a master of sailors that are merchantmen, one with a memory for his freight, or that hath charge of a cargo homeward bound, and of greedily gotten gains.”[36] It is beside the point whether the chief passages in the poems which relate to sports are late in origin or not, even if they are later than 776 B. C., the traditional first Olympiad. In any case the later poet merely followed an older tradition. At the funeral games of Patroklos all the events are practical in character, the natural amusements of men chiefly interested in war. They are, however, not merely military, but are truly athletic. The oldest and most aristocratic of all the events described is the chariot-race—in which the war-chariot is used—the monopoly of the nobles then, as it was always later the sport of kings and the rich.[37] Boxing and wrestling come next in importance, already occupying the position of preëminence which they hold in the poems of Pindar. The foot-race between Ajax, the son of Oileus, and Odysseus follows. Of the last four events, three—the single combat between Ajax and Diomedes, the throwing of the _solos_, and the contest in archery—are admitted to be late additions. The last event of all, the casting of the spear, may be earlier, but we know little about it, as the contest did not take place, Achilles yielding the first prize to Agamemnon. Most of these later events are described in a lifeless manner and have not the vim and compelling interest of the earlier ones. Indeed the contest in archery seems to be treated with a certain amount of ridicule, which shows the contempt of the great nobles for so plebeian a sport. The armed contest, though it is pictured in art certainly as early as the sixth century B. C.,[38] never had a place in the later Greek games.[39] Jumping, an important part of the later pentathlon, is mentioned but once in the poems, as a feature of the sports of the Phaiakians. But the later pentathlon, as Gardiner says, is certainly not suggested in Homer’s account, though many have assumed it,[40] merely because Nestor mentions his former contests at Bouprasion in boxing, in running, in hurling the spear, and in the chariot-race.[41] This, however, is not the combination of contests known much later as the pentathlon, in which the same contestants had to compete in the series of events—running, jumping, wrestling, diskos-throwing, and javelin-throwing.
ORIGIN OF GREEK GAMES IN THE CULT OF THE DEAD.
In these games described in the Iliad we see an example of the origin of the later athletic festivals in the cult of the dead. Homer knows only of funeral games[42] and there is no trace in the poems of the later athletic meetings held in honor of a god.[43] However, the association of the later games with religious festivals held at stated times can be traced to the games with which the funeral of the Homeric chief was celebrated. The oldest example of periodic funeral games in Greece of which we have knowledge were those held in Arkadia in honor of the dead Azan, the father of Kleitor and son of Arkas, at which prizes were offered at least for horse-racing.[44]
Though the origin of the four national religious festivals in Greece—at Olympia, Delphi, Nemea, and on the Isthmus—is buried in a mass of conflicting legend, certain writers agree in saying that all of them were founded on funeral games, though they were later dedicated to gods.[45] Thus the Isthmian were instituted in honor of the dead Melikertes,[46] the Nemean in honor of Opheltes or Archemoros,[47] the Pythian in honor of the slain Python,[48] the Olympian in honor of the hero Pelops.[49] To both Pindar and Bacchylides the Olympian games were associated with the tomb of Pelops; Pausanias, on the other hand, records that the ancient Elean writers ascribed their origin to the Idæan Herakles of Crete.[50] It was a common tradition that Herakles founded the games, some writers saying that it was the Cretan, others that it was the Greek hero, the son of Zeus and Alkmena.[51]
Despite the variation in legends relative to the institution of the four national games, we should not doubt the universal tradition that all were funerary in origin. The tradition is confirmed by many lines of argument: by the survival of funeral customs in their later rituals, by the later custom of instituting funeral games in honor of dead warriors both in antiquity and in modern times, and by the testimony of early athletic art in Greece.[52] We shall now briefly consider these arguments.
As an example of the survival of funeral customs in later ritual, Pausanias says that the annual officers at Olympia, even in his day, sacrificed a black ram to Pelops.[53] The fact that a black victim was offered over a trench instead of on an altar proves that Pelops was still worshipped as a hero and not as a god. The scholiast on Pindar, _Ol._, I, 146, says that all Peloponnesian lads each year lashed themselves on the grave of Pelops until the blood ran down their backs as a libation to the hero. Furthermore, all the contestants at Olympia sacrificed first to Pelops and then to Zeus.[54]